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.cmtt-10{font-family: monospace;}
.cmti-10{ font-style: italic;}
p.noindent { text-indent: 0em }
td p.noindent { text-indent: 0em; margin-top:0em; }
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@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
<meta name="originator" content="TeX4ht (http://www.cse.ohio-state.edu/~gurari/TeX4ht/)">
<!-- html -->
<meta name="src" content="manual.tex">
<meta name="date" content="2007-11-17 19:44:00">
<meta name="date" content="2008-06-19 23:25:00">
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="manual.css">
</head><body
>
@ -22,21 +22,21 @@ class="cmr-12">Fabrizio Riguzzi</span>
class="cmr-12">fabrizio.riguzzi@unife.it</span></div>
<br />
<div class="date" ><span
class="cmr-12">November 17, 2007</span></div>
class="cmr-12">June 19, 2008</span></div>
</div>
<h3 class="sectionHead"><span class="titlemark">1 </span> <a
id="x1-10001"></a>Introduction</h3>
<!--l. 30--><p class="noindent" ><span
<!--l. 30--><p class="noindent"><span
class="cmtt-10">cplint </span>is a suite of programs for reasoning with LPADs <span class="cite">[<a
href="#XVenVer03-TR">11</a>,&#x00A0;<a
href="#XVenVer04-ICLP04-IC">12</a>]</span> and CP-logic
programs <span class="cite">[<a
href="#XVenDenBru-JELIA06">10</a>,&#x00A0;<a
href="#XCP-logic-unp">13</a>]</span>.
<!--l. 32--><p class="indent" > It consists of three Prolog modules for answering queries using goal-oriented
<!--l. 32--><p class="indent"> It consists of three Prolog modules for answering queries using goal-oriented
procedures plus three Prolog modules for answering queries using the definition of the
semantics of LPADs and CP-logic.
<!--l. 36--><p class="indent" > The modules for answering queries using using goal-oriented procedures are
<!--l. 36--><p class="indent"> The modules for answering queries using using goal-oriented procedures are
<span
class="cmtt-10">lpadsld.pl</span>, <span
class="cmtt-10">lpad.pl </span>and <span
@ -49,11 +49,11 @@ href="#XRig-AIIA07-IC">7</a>]</span> and <span class="cite">[<a
href="#XRig-RCRA07-IC">8</a>]</span>. It is based on SLDNF resolution and
is an adaptation of the interpreter for ProbLog <span class="cite">[<a
href="#XDBLP:conf/ijcai/RaedtKT07">4</a>]</span>.
<!--l. 42--><p class="noindent" >It was proved correct <span class="cite">[<a
<!--l. 42--><p class="noindent">It was proved correct <span class="cite">[<a
href="#XRig-RCRA07-IC">8</a>]</span> with respect to the semantics of LPADs for range
restricted acyclic programs <span class="cite">[<a
href="#XDBLP:journals/ngc/AptB91">1</a>]</span> without function symbols.
<!--l. 44--><p class="noindent" >It is also able to deal with extensions of LPADs and CP-logic: the clause
<!--l. 44--><p class="noindent">It is also able to deal with extensions of LPADs and CP-logic: the clause
bodies can contain <span
class="cmtt-10">setof </span>and <span
class="cmtt-10">bagof</span>, the probabilities in the head may
@ -84,7 +84,7 @@ href="#XDBLP:journals/jacm/ChenW96">3</a>]</span>. As a consequence, it works fo
class="cmtt-10">cpl.pl</span>: computes the probability of a query using a top-down procedure
based on SLG resolution and moreover checks that the CP-logic program
is valid, i.e., that it has at least an execution model.</li></ul>
<!--l. 50--><p class="indent" > The modules for answering queries using the definition of the semantics of LPADs
<!--l. 50--><p class="indent"> The modules for answering queries using the definition of the semantics of LPADs
and CP-logic are <span
class="cmtt-10">semlpadsld.pl</span>, <span
class="cmtt-10">semlpad.pl </span>and <span
@ -117,67 +117,69 @@ class="cmmi-10">P</span>, i.e.,
and temporal precedence. It uses the definition of the semantics given in
<span class="cite">[<a
href="#XCP-logic-unp">13</a>]</span>.</li></ul>
<!--l. 59--><p class="noindent" >
<!--l. 59--><p class="noindent">
<h3 class="sectionHead"><span class="titlemark">2 </span> <a
id="x1-20002"></a>Installation</h3>
<!--l. 60--><p class="noindent" ><span
<!--l. 60--><p class="noindent"><span
class="cmtt-10">cplint </span>is distributed in source code in the CVS version of Yap. It
includes Prolog and C files. Download it by following the instruction in <a
href="http://www.ncc.up.pt/\protect \unhbox \voidb@x \penalty \@M \relax \unhbox \voidb@x \special {t4ht@+&{35}x00A0{59}}x{}vsc/Yap/downloads.html" >
http://www.ncc.up.pt/<span
class="cmsy-10">~</span>vsc/Yap/downloads.html </a>.
<!--l. 62--><p class="indent" > <span
class="cmtt-10">cplint </span>requires glu (a subpackage of vis) and glib. You can download glu from <a
href="http://vlsi.colorado.edu/\protect \unhbox \voidb@x \penalty \@M \relax \unhbox \voidb@x \special {t4ht@+&{35}x00A0{59}}x{}vis/getting_VIS_2.1.html" >
http://vlsi.colorado.edu/<span
class="cmsy-10">~</span>vis/getting_VIS_2.1.html </a> You can download glib from
<a
href="http://www.gtk.org/" > http://www.gtk.org/ </a>. This is a standard GNU package so it is easy to
install it using the package management software of your Linux or Cygwin
distribution.
<!--l. 68--><p class="indent" > Install glu:
<!--l. 62--><p class="indent"> <span
class="cmtt-10">cplint </span>requires glu (a subpackage of vis) and glib-2.0. You can download glu
from <a
href="http://vlsi.colorado.edu/\protect \unhbox \voidb@x \penalty \@M \relax \unhbox \voidb@x \special {t4ht@+&{35}x00A0{59}}x{}vis/getting_VIS_2.1.html" > http://vlsi.colorado.edu/<span
class="cmsy-10">~</span>vis/getting_VIS_2.1.html </a> You can download
glib-2.0 (version <span
class="cmsy-10">&#x2265; </span>2<span
class="cmmi-10">.</span>0) from <a
href="http://www.gtk.org/" > http://www.gtk.org/ </a>. This is a standard GNU package
so it is easy to install it using the package management software of your Linux or
Cygwin distribution.
<!--l. 68--><p class="indent"> Install glu:
<ol class="enumerate1" >
<li
class="enumerate" id="x1-2002x1">downlad <span
<li class="enumerate"><a
id="x1-2002x1"></a>downlad <span
class="cmtt-10">glu-2.1.tar.gz</span>
</li>
<li
class="enumerate" id="x1-2004x2">decompress it
<li class="enumerate"><a
id="x1-2004x2"></a>decompress it
</li>
<li
class="enumerate" id="x1-2006x3"><span
<li class="enumerate"><a
id="x1-2006x3"></a><span
class="cmtt-10">cd glu-2.1</span>
</li>
<li
class="enumerate" id="x1-2008x4"><span
<li class="enumerate"><a
id="x1-2008x4"></a><span
class="cmtt-10">mkdir arch</span>
</li>
<li
class="enumerate" id="x1-2010x5"><span
<li class="enumerate"><a
id="x1-2010x5"></a><span
class="cmtt-10">cd arch</span>
</li>
<li
class="enumerate" id="x1-2012x6"><span
<li class="enumerate"><a
id="x1-2012x6"></a><span
class="cmtt-10">../configure</span>
</li>
<li
class="enumerate" id="x1-2014x7"><span
<li class="enumerate"><a
id="x1-2014x7"></a><span
class="cmtt-10">make</span>
</li>
<li
class="enumerate" id="x1-2016x8"><span
<li class="enumerate"><a
id="x1-2016x8"></a><span
class="cmtt-10">su</span>
</li>
<li
class="enumerate" id="x1-2018x9"><span
<li class="enumerate"><a
id="x1-2018x9"></a><span
class="cmtt-10">make install</span></li></ol>
<!--l. 80--><p class="noindent" >This will install glu into <span
<!--l. 80--><p class="noindent">This will install glu into <span
class="cmtt-10">/usr/local</span>, if you want to install to a different <span
class="cmtt-10">DIR </span>use
<span
class="cmtt-10">../configure --prefix DIR</span>
<!--l. 83--><p class="indent" > Install Yap together with <span
<!--l. 83--><p class="indent"> Install Yap together with <span
class="cmtt-10">cplint</span>: when compiling Yap following the instuction of
the <span
class="cmtt-10">INSTALL </span>file in the root of the Yap folder, use
@ -188,7 +190,7 @@ class="verbatim"><div class="verbatim">
configure&#x00A0;--enable-cplint
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 87--><p class="nopar" > Under Windows, you have to use Cygwin (glu does not compile under MinGW),
<!--l. 87--><p class="nopar"> Under Windows, you have to use Cygwin (glu does not compile under MinGW),
so
<br class="newline" />
@ -198,19 +200,19 @@ class="verbatim"><div class="verbatim">
configure&#x00A0;--enable-cplint&#x00A0;--enable-cygwin
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 91--><p class="nopar" > If you installed glu in <span
<!--l. 91--><p class="nopar"> If you installed glu in <span
class="cmtt-10">DIR</span>, use <span
class="cmtt-10">--enable-cplint=DIR</span>
<!--l. 94--><p class="indent" > After having performed <span
<!--l. 94--><p class="indent"> After having performed <span
class="cmtt-10">make install </span>you can do <span
class="cmtt-10">make installcheck </span>that will
execute a suite of tests of the various programs. If no error is reported you have a
working installation of <span
class="cmtt-10">cplint</span>.
<!--l. 97--><p class="noindent" >
<!--l. 97--><p class="noindent">
<h3 class="sectionHead"><span class="titlemark">3 </span> <a
id="x1-30003"></a>Syntax</h3>
<!--l. 99--><p class="noindent" >Disjunction in the head is represented with a semicolon and atoms in the head are
<!--l. 99--><p class="noindent">Disjunction in the head is represented with a semicolon and atoms in the head are
separated from probabilities by a colon. For the rest, the usual syntax of Prolog is
used. For example, the CP-logic clause
<center class="math-display" >
@ -224,11 +226,11 @@ class="verbatim"><div class="verbatim">
h1:p1&#x00A0;;&#x00A0;...&#x00A0;;&#x00A0;hn:pn&#x00A0;:-&#x00A0;b1,...,bm,\+&#x00A0;c1,....,\+&#x00A0;cl
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 105--><p class="nopar" > No parentheses are necessary. The <span
<!--l. 105--><p class="nopar"> No parentheses are necessary. The <span
class="cmtt-10">pi </span>are numeric expressions. It is up to the user to
ensure that the numeric expressions are legal, i.e. that they sum up to less than
one.
<!--l. 108--><p class="indent" > If the clause has an empty body, it can be represented like this
<!--l. 108--><p class="indent"> If the clause has an empty body, it can be represented like this
<table
class="verbatim"><tr class="verbatim"><td
@ -236,7 +238,7 @@ class="verbatim"><div class="verbatim">
h1:p1&#x00A0;;&#x00A0;...&#x00A0;;hn:pn.
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 111--><p class="nopar" > If the clause has a single head with probability 1, the annotation can be omitted and
<!--l. 111--><p class="nopar"> If the clause has a single head with probability 1, the annotation can be omitted and
the clause takes the form of a normal prolog clause, i.e.
<table
@ -245,7 +247,7 @@ class="verbatim"><div class="verbatim">
h1:-&#x00A0;b1,...,bm,\+&#x00A0;c1,...,\+&#x00A0;cl.
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 115--><p class="nopar" > stands for
<!--l. 115--><p class="nopar"> stands for
<table
class="verbatim"><tr class="verbatim"><td
@ -253,8 +255,8 @@ class="verbatim"><div class="verbatim">
h1:1&#x00A0;:-&#x00A0;b1,...,bm,\+&#x00A0;c1,...,\+&#x00A0;cl.
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 119--><p class="nopar" >
<!--l. 121--><p class="indent" > The coin example of <span class="cite">[<a
<!--l. 119--><p class="nopar">
<!--l. 121--><p class="indent"> The coin example of <span class="cite">[<a
href="#XVenVer04-ICLP04-IC">12</a>]</span> is represented as (see file <span
class="cmtt-10">coin.cpl</span>)
@ -272,15 +274,15 @@ heads(Coin):1/2&#x00A0;;&#x00A0;tails(Coin):1/2:-
&#x00A0;<br />toss(coin).
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 132--><p class="nopar" > The first clause states that if we toss a coin that is not biased it has equal
<!--l. 132--><p class="nopar"> The first clause states that if we toss a coin that is not biased it has equal
probability of landing heads and tails. The second states that if the coin is biased it
has a slightly higher probability of landing heads. The third states that the coin is
fair with probability 0.9 and biased with probability 0.1 and the last clause states
that we toss a coin with certainty.
<!--l. 137--><p class="noindent" >
<!--l. 137--><p class="noindent">
<h3 class="sectionHead"><span class="titlemark">4 </span> <a
id="x1-40004"></a>Commands</h3>
<!--l. 138--><p class="noindent" >All six modules accept the same commands for reading in files and answering queries.
<!--l. 138--><p class="noindent">All six modules accept the same commands for reading in files and answering queries.
The LPAD or CP-logic program must be stored in a text file with extension <span
class="cmtt-10">.cpl</span>.
Suppose you have stored the example above in file <span
@ -295,7 +297,7 @@ class="verbatim"><div class="verbatim">
use_module(library(lpad)).
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 144--><p class="nopar" > at the command prompt. Then you must parse the source file <span
<!--l. 144--><p class="nopar"> at the command prompt. Then you must parse the source file <span
class="cmtt-10">coin.cpl </span>with the
command
@ -305,7 +307,7 @@ class="verbatim"><div class="verbatim">
p(coin).
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 149--><p class="nopar" > if <span
<!--l. 149--><p class="nopar"> if <span
class="cmtt-10">coin.cpl </span>is in the current directory, or
<table
@ -314,7 +316,7 @@ class="verbatim"><div class="verbatim">
p(&#8217;path_to_coin/coin&#8217;).
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 153--><p class="nopar" > if <span
<!--l. 153--><p class="nopar"> if <span
class="cmtt-10">coin.cpl </span>is in a different directory. At this point you can pose query to the
program by using the predicate <span
class="cmtt-10">s/2 </span>(for solve) that takes as its first argument a
@ -329,7 +331,7 @@ class="verbatim"><div class="verbatim">
s([head(coin),biased(coin)],P).
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 158--><p class="nopar" > For computing the probability of a conjunction given another conjunction you can
<!--l. 158--><p class="nopar"> For computing the probability of a conjunction given another conjunction you can
use the predicate <span
class="cmtt-10">sc/3 </span>(for solve conditional) that take takes as input the query
conjunction as its first argument, the evidence conjunction as its second argument
@ -345,19 +347,19 @@ class="verbatim"><div class="verbatim">
sc([heads(coin)],[biased(coin)],P).
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 163--><p class="nopar" > After having parsed a program, in order to read in a new program you must restart
<!--l. 163--><p class="nopar"> After having parsed a program, in order to read in a new program you must restart
Yap when using <span
class="cmtt-10">semlpadsld.pl </span>and <span
class="cmtt-10">semlpad.pl</span>. With the other modules, you can
directly parse a new program.
<!--l. 167--><p class="indent" > When using <span
<!--l. 167--><p class="indent"> When using <span
class="cmtt-10">lpad.pl</span>, the system can print the message &#8220;Uunsound program&#8221; in
the case in which an instance with a three valued well founded model is found.
Moreover, it can print the message &#8220;It requires the choice of a head atom from a non
ground head&#8221;: in this case, in order to answer the query, all the groundings of the
culprit clause must be generated, which may be impossible for programs with
function symbols.
<!--l. 169--><p class="indent" > When using <span
<!--l. 169--><p class="indent"> When using <span
class="cmtt-10">semcpl.pl</span>, you can print the execution process by using the
command <span
class="cmtt-10">print. </span>after <span
@ -370,13 +372,13 @@ class="cmtt-10">context </span>is a list of atoms that are true in the context.
<span
class="cmtt-10">semcpl.pl </span>can print &#8220;Invalid program&#8221; in the case in which no execution process
exists.
<!--l. 174--><p class="indent" > When using <span
<!--l. 174--><p class="indent"> When using <span
class="cmtt-10">cpl.pl </span>you can print a partial execution model including all the
clauses involved in the query issued with <span
class="cmtt-10">print. cpl.pl </span>can print the messages
&#8220;Uunsound program&#8221;, &#8220;It requires the choice of a head atom from a non ground
head&#8221; and &#8220;Invalid program&#8221;.
<!--l. 177--><p class="indent" > The modules make use of a number of parameters in order to control their
<!--l. 177--><p class="indent"> The modules make use of a number of parameters in order to control their
behavior. They that can be set with the command
<table
@ -385,7 +387,7 @@ class="verbatim"><div class="verbatim">
set(parameter,value).
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 180--><p class="nopar" > from the Yap prompt after having loaded the module. The current value can be read
<!--l. 180--><p class="nopar"> from the Yap prompt after having loaded the module. The current value can be read
with
<table
@ -394,7 +396,7 @@ class="verbatim"><div class="verbatim">
setting(parameter,Value).
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 185--><p class="nopar" > from the Yap prompt. The available parameters are:
<!--l. 185--><p class="nopar"> from the Yap prompt. The available parameters are:
<ul class="itemize1">
<li class="itemize"><span class="obeylines-h"><span class="verb"><span
class="cmtt-10">epsilon_parsing</span></span></span> (valid for all six modules): if (1 - the sum of the
@ -422,7 +424,7 @@ class="verbatim"><div class="verbatim">
Variables:&#x00A0;[(2,[X=2,X1=1]),(2,[X=1,X1=0]),(1,[])]
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 199--><p class="nopar" > where the first element of each couple is the clause number of the input file
<!--l. 199--><p class="nopar"> where the first element of each couple is the clause number of the input file
(starting from 1). In the example above variable <span
class="cmtt-10">X0 </span>corresponds to clause <span
class="cmtt-10">2</span>
@ -445,7 +447,7 @@ class="verbatim"><div class="verbatim">
dotty&#x00A0;cpl.dot&#x00A0;&amp;
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 208--><p class="nopar" >
<!--l. 208--><p class="nopar">
</li>
<li class="itemize"><span class="obeylines-h"><span class="verb"><span
class="cmtt-10">ground_body</span></span></span> (valid for <span
@ -458,15 +460,15 @@ class="cmtt-10">false</span>, ground
constant. In the case where the body contains variables not in the
head, setting it to false means that the body represents an existential
event.</li></ul>
<!--l. 212--><p class="noindent" >
<!--l. 212--><p class="noindent">
<h3 class="sectionHead"><span class="titlemark">5 </span> <a
id="x1-50005"></a>Semantic Modules</h3>
<!--l. 213--><p class="noindent" >The three semantic modules need to produce a grounding of the program in order to
<!--l. 213--><p class="noindent">The three semantic modules need to produce a grounding of the program in order to
compute the semantics. They require an extra file with extension <span
class="cmtt-10">.uni </span>(for universe)
in the same directory where the <span
class="cmtt-10">.cpl </span>file is.
<!--l. 216--><p class="indent" > There are two ways to specify how to ground a program. The first consists in
<!--l. 216--><p class="indent"> There are two ways to specify how to ground a program. The first consists in
providing the list of constants to which each variable can be instantiated. For
example, in our case the current directory will contain a file <span
class="cmtt-10">coin.uni </span>that is a
@ -478,7 +480,7 @@ class="verbatim"><div class="verbatim">
universe(var_list,const_list).
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 219--><p class="nopar" > where <span class="obeylines-h"><span class="verb"><span
<!--l. 219--><p class="nopar"> where <span class="obeylines-h"><span class="verb"><span
class="cmtt-10">var_list</span></span></span> is a list of variables names (each must be included in single quotes)
and <span class="obeylines-h"><span class="verb"><span
class="cmtt-10">const_list</span></span></span> is a list of constants. The semantic modules generate the grounding
@ -488,7 +490,7 @@ class="cmtt-10">var_list</span></span></span> with the constants of
class="cmtt-10">const_list</span></span></span>. Note that the variables are identified by name, so a variable with
the same name in two different clauses will be instantiated with the same
constants.
<!--l. 222--><p class="indent" > The other way to specify how to ground a program consists in using mode and
<!--l. 222--><p class="indent"> The other way to specify how to ground a program consists in using mode and
type information. For each predicate, the file <span
class="cmtt-10">.uni </span>must contain a fact of the
form
@ -499,7 +501,7 @@ class="verbatim"><div class="verbatim">
mode(predicate(t1,...,tn)).
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 225--><p class="nopar" > that specifies the number and types of each argument of the predicate. Then, the list
<!--l. 225--><p class="nopar"> that specifies the number and types of each argument of the predicate. Then, the list
of constants that are in the domain of each type <span
class="cmtt-10">ti </span>must be specified with a fact of
the form
@ -510,7 +512,7 @@ class="verbatim"><div class="verbatim">
type(ti,list_of_constants).
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 230--><p class="nopar" > The file <span
<!--l. 230--><p class="nopar"> The file <span
class="cmtt-10">.uni </span>can contain both universe and mode declaration, the ones to be used
depend on the value of the parameter <span
class="cmtt-10">grounding</span>: with value <span
@ -518,15 +520,15 @@ class="cmtt-10">variables</span>, the
universe declarations are used, with value <span
class="cmtt-10">modes </span>the mode declarations are
used.
<!--l. 233--><p class="indent" > With <span
<!--l. 233--><p class="indent"> With <span
class="cmtt-10">semcpl.pl </span>only mode declarations can be used.
<!--l. 237--><p class="noindent" >
<!--l. 237--><p class="noindent">
<h3 class="sectionHead"><span class="titlemark">6 </span> <a
id="x1-60006"></a>Extensions</h3>
<!--l. 238--><p class="noindent" >In this section we will present the extensions to the syntax of LPADs and CP-logic
<!--l. 238--><p class="noindent">In this section we will present the extensions to the syntax of LPADs and CP-logic
programs that <span
class="cmtt-10">cplint </span>can handle.
<!--l. 240--><p class="indent" > The first is the use of some standard Prolog predicates. The bodies can contain
<!--l. 240--><p class="indent"> The first is the use of some standard Prolog predicates. The bodies can contain
the built-in predicates:
<table
@ -548,7 +550,7 @@ is/2
&#x00A0;<br />length/2
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 257--><p class="nopar" > The bodies can also contain the following library predicates:
<!--l. 257--><p class="nopar"> The bodies can also contain the following library predicates:
<table
class="verbatim"><tr class="verbatim"><td
@ -560,7 +562,7 @@ member/2
&#x00A0;<br />nth/3
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 266--><p class="nopar" > plus the predicate
<!--l. 266--><p class="nopar"> plus the predicate
<table
class="verbatim"><tr class="verbatim"><td
@ -568,8 +570,8 @@ class="verbatim"><div class="verbatim">
average/2
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 270--><p class="nopar" > that, given a list of numbers, computes its arithmetic mean.
<!--l. 273--><p class="indent" > When using <span
<!--l. 270--><p class="nopar"> that, given a list of numbers, computes its arithmetic mean.
<!--l. 273--><p class="indent"> When using <span
class="cmtt-10">lpadsld.pl</span>, the bodies can contain the predicates <span
class="cmtt-10">setof/3 </span>and
<span
@ -582,13 +584,13 @@ class="verbatim"><div class="verbatim">
setof(Z,&#x00A0;(term(X,Y))^foo(X,Y,Z),&#x00A0;L).
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 276--><p class="nopar" > returns all the instantiations of <span
<!--l. 276--><p class="nopar"> returns all the instantiations of <span
class="cmtt-10">Z </span>such that there exists an instantiation of <span
class="cmtt-10">X </span>and <span
class="cmtt-10">Y</span>
for which <span
class="cmtt-10">foo(X,Y,Z) </span>is true.
<!--l. 279--><p class="indent" > An example of the use of <span
<!--l. 279--><p class="indent"> An example of the use of <span
class="cmtt-10">setof </span>and <span
class="cmtt-10">bagof </span>is in the file <span
class="cmtt-10">female.cpl</span>:
@ -617,18 +619,18 @@ male(C):M/P&#x00A0;;&#x00A0;female(C):F/P:-
&#x00A0;<br />known_male(e).
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 300--><p class="nopar" > The disjunctive rule expresses the probability of a person of unknown sex of being
<!--l. 300--><p class="nopar"> The disjunctive rule expresses the probability of a person of unknown sex of being
male or female depending on the number of males and females that are known. This
is an example of the use of expressions in the probabilities in the head that depend
on variables in the body. The probabilities are well defined because they always sum
to 1 (unless <span
class="cmtt-10">P </span>is 0).
<!--l. 304--><p class="indent" > Another use of <span
<!--l. 304--><p class="indent"> Another use of <span
class="cmtt-10">setof </span>and <span
class="cmtt-10">bagof </span>is to have an attribute depend on an
aggregate function of another attribute, similarly to what is done in PRM and
CLP(BN).
<!--l. 306--><p class="indent" > So, in the classical school example (available in <span
<!--l. 306--><p class="indent"> So, in the classical school example (available in <span
class="cmtt-10">student.cpl</span>) you can find the
following clauses:
@ -644,7 +646,7 @@ student_rank(S,h):0.6&#x00A0;;&#x00A0;student_rank(S,l):0.4:-
&#x00A0;<br />&#x00A0;&#x00A0;&#x00A0;&#x00A0;average(L,Av),Av&#x00A0;=&#x003C;&#x00A0;1.5.
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 316--><p class="nopar" > where <span class="obeylines-h"><span class="verb"><span
<!--l. 316--><p class="nopar"> where <span class="obeylines-h"><span class="verb"><span
class="cmtt-10">registr_stu(R,S)</span></span></span> expresses that registration <span
class="cmtt-10">R </span>refers to student <span
class="cmtt-10">S </span>and
@ -654,7 +656,7 @@ class="cmtt-10">R </span>reports grade <span
class="cmtt-10">G </span>which is a natural
number. The two clauses express a dependency of the rank of the student from the
average of her grades.
<!--l. 319--><p class="indent" > Another extension can be used with <span
<!--l. 319--><p class="indent"> Another extension can be used with <span
class="cmtt-10">lpadsld.pl </span>in order to be able to represent
reference uncertainty of PRMs. Reference uncertainty means that the link structure
of a relational model is not fixed but is uncertain: this is represented by having the
@ -676,13 +678,13 @@ uniform(cites_cited(C,P),P,L):-
&#x00A0;<br />&#x00A0;&#x00A0;&#x00A0;&#x00A0;bagof(Pap,paper_topic(Pap,ai),L).
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 326--><p class="nopar" > The first clauses states that the paper <span
<!--l. 326--><p class="nopar"> The first clauses states that the paper <span
class="cmtt-10">P </span>cited in a citation <span
class="cmtt-10">C </span>is selected
uniformly from the set of all papers with topic theory. The second clauses
expresses that the citing paper is selected uniformly from the papers with topic
ai.
<!--l. 331--><p class="indent" > These clauses make use of the predicate
<!--l. 331--><p class="indent"> These clauses make use of the predicate
<table
class="verbatim"><tr class="verbatim"><td
@ -690,7 +692,7 @@ class="verbatim"><div class="verbatim">
uniform(Atom,Variable,List)
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 334--><p class="nopar" > in the head, where <span
<!--l. 334--><p class="nopar"> in the head, where <span
class="cmtt-10">Atom </span>must contain <span
class="cmtt-10">Variable</span>. The meaning is the following:
the set of all the atoms obtained by instantiating <span
@ -703,7 +705,7 @@ class="cmmi-10">&#x2215;N </span>where <span
class="cmmi-10">N </span>is the length of
<span
class="cmtt-10">List</span>.
<!--l. 338--><p class="indent" > A more elaborate example is present in file <span class="obeylines-h"><span class="verb"><span
<!--l. 338--><p class="indent"> A more elaborate example is present in file <span class="obeylines-h"><span class="verb"><span
class="cmtt-10">paper_ref.cpl</span></span></span>:
<table
@ -722,13 +724,13 @@ uniform(cites_citing(C,P),P,L):-
&#x00A0;<br />&#x00A0;&#x00A0;&#x00A0;&#x00A0;cites_cited_group(C,T),bagof(Pap,paper_topic(Pap,T),L).
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 351--><p class="nopar" > where the cited paper depends on the topic of the citing paper. In particular, if the
<!--l. 351--><p class="nopar"> where the cited paper depends on the topic of the citing paper. In particular, if the
topic is theory, the cited paper is selected uniformly from the papers about theory
with probability 0.9 and from the papers about ai with probability 0.1. if
the topic is ai, the cited paper is selected uniformly from the papers about
theory with probability 0.01 and from the papers about ai with probability
0.99.
<!--l. 354--><p class="indent" > PRMs take into account as well existence uncertainty, where the existence of
<!--l. 354--><p class="indent"> PRMs take into account as well existence uncertainty, where the existence of
instances is also probabilistic. For example, in the paper domain, the total number of
citations may be unknown and a citation between any two paper may have a
probability of existing. For example, a citation between two paper may be more
@ -750,7 +752,7 @@ cites(X,Y):0.005&#x00A0;:-
&#x00A0;<br />&#x00A0;&#x00A0;&#x00A0;&#x00A0;paper_topic(X,ai),paper_topic(Y,ai).
</div>
</td></tr></table>
<!--l. 367--><p class="nopar" > This is an example where the probabilities in the head do not sum up to one so the
<!--l. 367--><p class="nopar"> This is an example where the probabilities in the head do not sum up to one so the
null event is automatically added to the head. The first clause states that, if the topic
of a paper <span
class="cmtt-10">X </span>is theory and of paper <span
@ -759,10 +761,10 @@ there is a citation from <span
class="cmtt-10">X </span>to <span
class="cmtt-10">Y</span>. The other clauses consider the remaining cases for the
topics.
<!--l. 372--><p class="noindent" >
<!--l. 372--><p class="noindent">
<h3 class="sectionHead"><span class="titlemark">7 </span> <a
id="x1-70007"></a>Additional Files</h3>
<!--l. 373--><p class="noindent" >In the directory where Yap keeps the library files (usually <span
<!--l. 373--><p class="noindent">In the directory where Yap keeps the library files (usually <span
class="cmtt-10">/usr/local/share/ Yap</span>)
you can find the directory <span
class="cmtt-10">cplint </span>that contains the files:
@ -773,11 +775,13 @@ class="cmtt-10">&#x00A0;testlpadsld_gbfalse.pl,</span><span
class="cmtt-10">&#x00A0;testlpad.pl,</span></span></span>
<span class="obeylines-h"><span class="verb"><span
class="cmtt-10">testcpl.pl,</span><span
class="cmtt-10">&#x00A0;testsemcpl.pl</span></span></span>: Prolog programs for testing the modules.
They are executed when issuing the command <span
class="cmtt-10">make installcheck </span>during
the installation. To execute them afterwords, load the file and issue the
command <span
class="cmtt-10">&#x00A0;testsemlpadsld.pl,</span><span
class="cmtt-10">&#x00A0;testsemlpad.pl</span><span
class="cmtt-10">&#x00A0;testsemcpl.pl</span></span></span>:
Prolog programs for testing the modules. They are executed when issuing
the command <span
class="cmtt-10">make installcheck </span>during the installation. To execute
them afterwords, load the file and issue the command <span
class="cmtt-10">t.</span>
</li>
<li class="itemize">Subdirectory <span
@ -863,7 +867,7 @@ class="cmtt-10">invalid.cpl</span>: programs taken from <span class="cite">[<a
href="#XCP-logic-unp">13</a>]</span>. <span
class="cmtt-10">invalid.cpl </span>is an example
of a program that is invalid but sound.</li></ul>
<!--l. 397--><p class="noindent" >The files <span
<!--l. 398--><p class="noindent">The files <span
class="cmtt-10">*.uni </span>that are present for some of the examples are used by the
semantical modules. Some of the example files contain in an initial comment
some queries together with their result.
@ -871,18 +875,18 @@ class="cmtt-10">*.uni </span>that are present for some of the examples are used
<li class="itemize">Subdirectory <span
class="cmtt-10">doc</span>: contains this manual in latex, html and pdf.</li></ul>
<!--l. 400--><p class="noindent" >
<!--l. 401--><p class="noindent">
<h3 class="sectionHead"><span class="titlemark">8 </span> <a
id="x1-80008"></a>License</h3>
<!--l. 405--><p class="noindent" ><span
<!--l. 406--><p class="noindent"><span
class="cmtt-10">cplint</span>, as Yap, follows the Artistic License 2.0 that you can find in Yap CVS root
dir. The copyright is by Fabrizio Riguzzi.
<!--l. 410--><p class="indent" > The program uses the library <a
<!--l. 411--><p class="indent"> The program uses the library <a
href="http://vlsi.colorado.edu/\protect \unhbox \voidb@x \penalty \@M \relax \unhbox \voidb@x \special {t4ht@+&{35}x00A0{59}}x{}fabio/" > CUDD </a> for manipulating BDDs that is included in
glu. For the use of CUDD, the following license must be accepted:
<!--l. 415--><p class="indent" > Copyright (c) 1995-2004, Regents of the University of Colorado
<!--l. 417--><p class="indent" > All rights reserved.
<!--l. 419--><p class="indent" > Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification,
<!--l. 416--><p class="indent"> Copyright (c) 1995-2004, Regents of the University of Colorado
<!--l. 418--><p class="indent"> All rights reserved.
<!--l. 420--><p class="indent"> Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification,
are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:
<ul class="itemize1">
<li class="itemize">Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this
@ -895,7 +899,7 @@ are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:
<li class="itemize">Neither the name of the University of Colorado nor the names of its
contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from
this software without specific prior written permission.</li></ul>
<!--l. 436--><p class="noindent" >THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS
<!--l. 437--><p class="noindent">THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS
<br class="newline" />AND CONTRIBUTORS &#8221;AS IS&#8221; AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED
WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR
@ -909,7 +913,7 @@ INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAU-SED
LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE)
ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF
ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
<!--l. 450--><p class="indent" > <span
<!--l. 451--><p class="indent"> <span
class="cmtt-10">lpad.pl</span>, <span
class="cmtt-10">semlpad.pl </span>and <span
class="cmtt-10">cpl.pl </span>are based on the SLG system by <a
@ -919,19 +923,19 @@ href="http://www.cs.sunysb.edu/\protect \unhbox \voidb@x \penalty \@M \relax \un
1993 SUNY at Stony Brook, see the file COYPRIGHT_SLG for detailed information
on this copyright.
<!--l. 1--><p class="noindent" >
<!--l. 1--><p class="noindent">
<h3 class="likesectionHead"><a
id="x1-90008"></a>References</h3>
<!--l. 1--><p class="noindent" >
<!--l. 1--><p class="noindent">
<div class="thebibliography">
<p class="bibitem" ><span class="biblabel">
<p class="bibitem"><span class="biblabel">
[1]<span class="bibsp">&#x00A0;&#x00A0;&#x00A0;</span></span><a
id="XDBLP:journals/ngc/AptB91"></a>K.&#x00A0;R. Apt and M.&#x00A0;Bezem. Acyclic programs. <span
class="cmti-10">New Generation</span>
<span
class="cmti-10">Comput.</span>, 9(3/4):335&#8211;364, 1991.
</p>
<p class="bibitem" ><span class="biblabel">
<p class="bibitem"><span class="biblabel">
[2]<span class="bibsp">&#x00A0;&#x00A0;&#x00A0;</span></span><a
id="XBlo04-ILP04WIP-IC"></a>H.&#x00A0;Blockeel. Probabilistic logical models for mendel&#8217;s experiments: An
exercise. In <span
@ -939,13 +943,13 @@ class="cmti-10">Inductive Logic Programming (ILP 2004), Work in Progress</span>
<span
class="cmti-10">Track</span>, 2004.
</p>
<p class="bibitem" ><span class="biblabel">
<p class="bibitem"><span class="biblabel">
[3]<span class="bibsp">&#x00A0;&#x00A0;&#x00A0;</span></span><a
id="XDBLP:journals/jacm/ChenW96"></a>Weidong Chen and David&#x00A0;Scott Warren. Tabled evaluation with
delaying for general logic programs. <span
class="cmti-10">J. ACM</span>, 43(1):20&#8211;74, 1996.
</p>
<p class="bibitem" ><span class="biblabel">
<p class="bibitem"><span class="biblabel">
[4]<span class="bibsp">&#x00A0;&#x00A0;&#x00A0;</span></span><a
id="XDBLP:conf/ijcai/RaedtKT07"></a>L.&#x00A0;De&#x00A0;Raedt, A.&#x00A0;Kimmig, and H.&#x00A0;Toivonen. Problog: A probabilistic
prolog and its application in link discovery. In <span
@ -954,14 +958,14 @@ class="cmti-10">Proceedings of the 20th</span>
class="cmti-10">International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence</span>, pages 2462&#8211;2467,
2007.
</p>
<p class="bibitem" ><span class="biblabel">
<p class="bibitem"><span class="biblabel">
[5]<span class="bibsp">&#x00A0;&#x00A0;&#x00A0;</span></span><a
id="XGetFri01-BC"></a>L.&#x00A0;Getoor, N.&#x00A0;Friedman, D.&#x00A0;Koller, and A.&#x00A0;Pfeffer. Learning
probabilistic relational models. In Saso Dzeroski and Nada Lavrac, editors,
<span
class="cmti-10">Relational Data Mining</span>. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2001.
</p>
<p class="bibitem" ><span class="biblabel">
<p class="bibitem"><span class="biblabel">
[6]<span class="bibsp">&#x00A0;&#x00A0;&#x00A0;</span></span><a
id="XGetoor+al:JMLR02"></a>L.&#x00A0;Getoor, N.&#x00A0;Friedman, D.&#x00A0;Koller, and B.&#x00A0;Taskar. Learning
probabilistic models of relational structure. <span
@ -969,7 +973,7 @@ class="cmti-10">Journal of Machine Learning</span>
<span
class="cmti-10">Research</span>, 3:679&#8211;707, December 2002.
</p>
<p class="bibitem" ><span class="biblabel">
<p class="bibitem"><span class="biblabel">
[7]<span class="bibsp">&#x00A0;&#x00A0;&#x00A0;</span></span><a
id="XRig-AIIA07-IC"></a>Fabrizio Riguzzi. A top down interpreter for lpad and cp-logic. In
<span
@ -980,7 +984,7 @@ href="http://www.ing.unife.it/docenti/FabrizioRiguzzi/Papers/Rig-AIIA07.pdf" > h
</a>.
</p>
<p class="bibitem" ><span class="biblabel">
<p class="bibitem"><span class="biblabel">
[8]<span class="bibsp">&#x00A0;&#x00A0;&#x00A0;</span></span><a
id="XRig-RCRA07-IC"></a>Fabrizio Riguzzi. A top down interpreter for lpad and
cp-logic. In <span
@ -990,7 +994,7 @@ class="cmti-10">Algorithms for Solving Problems with Combinatorial Explosion</sp
href="http://pst.istc.cnr.it/RCRA07/articoli/P19-riguzzi-RCRA07.pdf" >
http://pst.istc.cnr.it/RCRA07/articoli/P19-riguzzi-RCRA07.pdf </a>.
</p>
<p class="bibitem" ><span class="biblabel">
<p class="bibitem"><span class="biblabel">
[9]<span class="bibsp">&#x00A0;&#x00A0;&#x00A0;</span></span><a
id="XSanPagQaz03-UAI-IC"></a>V.&#x00A0;Santos&#x00A0;Costa, D.&#x00A0;Page, M.&#x00A0;Qazi, and J.&#x00A0;Cussens. CLP(BN):
Constraint logic programming for probabilistic knowledge. In <span
@ -998,7 +1002,7 @@ class="cmti-10">Uncertainty</span>
<span
class="cmti-10">in Artificial Intelligence (UAI 2003)</span>, 2003.
</p>
<p class="bibitem" ><span class="biblabel">
<p class="bibitem"><span class="biblabel">
[10]<span class="bibsp">&#x00A0;&#x00A0;&#x00A0;</span></span><a
id="XVenDenBru-JELIA06"></a>J.&#x00A0;Vennekens, M.&#x00A0;Denecker, and M.&#x00A0;Bruynooghe. Representing causal
information about a probabilistic process. In <span
@ -1007,7 +1011,7 @@ class="cmti-10">10th European Conference on</span>
class="cmti-10">Logics in Artificial Intelligence, JELIA 2006</span>, LNAI. Springer, September
2006.
</p>
<p class="bibitem" ><span class="biblabel">
<p class="bibitem"><span class="biblabel">
[11]<span class="bibsp">&#x00A0;&#x00A0;&#x00A0;</span></span><a
id="XVenVer03-TR"></a>J.&#x00A0;Vennekens and S.&#x00A0;Verbaeten. Logic programs with annotated
disjunctions. Technical Report CW386, K. U. Leuven, 2003. <a
@ -1015,7 +1019,7 @@ href="http://www.cs.kuleuven.ac.be/\protect \unhbox \voidb@x \penalty \@M \relax
http://www.cs.kuleuven.ac.be/<span
class="cmsy-10">~</span>joost/techrep.ps </a>.
</p>
<p class="bibitem" ><span class="biblabel">
<p class="bibitem"><span class="biblabel">
[12]<span class="bibsp">&#x00A0;&#x00A0;&#x00A0;</span></span><a
id="XVenVer04-ICLP04-IC"></a>J.&#x00A0;Vennekens, S.&#x00A0;Verbaeten, and M.&#x00A0;Bruynooghe. Logic programs with
annotated disjunctions. In <span
@ -1026,7 +1030,7 @@ href="http://www.cs.kuleuven.ac.be/\protect \unhbox \voidb@x \penalty \@M \relax
class="cmsy-10">~</span>joost/
</a>.
</p>
<p class="bibitem" ><span class="biblabel">
<p class="bibitem"><span class="biblabel">
[13]<span class="bibsp">&#x00A0;&#x00A0;&#x00A0;</span></span><a
id="XCP-logic-unp"></a>Joost Vennekens, Marc Denecker, and Maurice Bruynooge. Extending
the role of causality in

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